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16 July 2025
Jules Dumezy, Andreea Alexandru, Yuriy Polyakov, Pierre-Emmanuel Clet, Olive Chakraborty, Aymen Boudguiga
ePrint Report
The Cheon--Kim--Kim--Song (CKKS) scheme is a fully homomorphic encryption scheme that traditionally supports only the evaluation of smooth functions. Recent works have enabled the evaluation of arbitrary (discontinuous) integer functions represented as lookup tables (LUT) on small inputs using the method of functional bootstrapping (FBT). Although well-suited for small integers (up to around 10 bits), the efficiency of FBT quickly declines for large LUTs, and a considerable increase in both runtime and memory requirements is observed. Building on CKKS functional bootstrapping, we propose in this paper two functional bootstrapping algorithms, specifically designed to target larger LUTs (up to 20 bits). For a 16-bit LUT, our implementation in OpenFHE achieves a speed-up of 47.5 in amortized time and 95.1 in latency for single-threaded execution, compared to the state-of-the-art CKKS-based functional bootstrapping method of Alexandru et al. (CRYPTO'25).
Pierre Daix-Moreux, Chengru Zhang
ePrint Report
Despite the growing popularity of blockchains, their scalability remains a significant challenge. Layer-2s (L2s) aim to address this by introducing an operator to process transactions off-chain and post compact summaries to the Layer-1 (L1). However, existing L2 designs struggle with unsatisfactory throughput improvements, complex exit games, limited data availability, or high computational overhead for users.
This paper introduces PlasmaFold, a novel L2 designed to overcome these limitations. PlasmaFold utilizes a hybrid architecture: an operator (aggregator) generates proofs on server side for the honest construction of blocks, while users maintain balance proofs on their own devices. This separation of concerns enables instant, non-interactive exits via balance proofs, while block proofs handle most of the validations, minimizing users’ costs. By leveraging Incrementally Verifiable Computation (IVC), PlasmaFold achieves concrete efficiency. Users can update their balance proofs within a browser in under 1 second per transaction using less than 1 GB of RAM. Furthermore, only the identities of users who have acknowledged data receipt are posted to L1, ensuring data availability with a minimal on-chain footprint. This design keeps L1 costs extremely low, enabling a theoretical throughput of over 14000 transactions per second.
This paper introduces PlasmaFold, a novel L2 designed to overcome these limitations. PlasmaFold utilizes a hybrid architecture: an operator (aggregator) generates proofs on server side for the honest construction of blocks, while users maintain balance proofs on their own devices. This separation of concerns enables instant, non-interactive exits via balance proofs, while block proofs handle most of the validations, minimizing users’ costs. By leveraging Incrementally Verifiable Computation (IVC), PlasmaFold achieves concrete efficiency. Users can update their balance proofs within a browser in under 1 second per transaction using less than 1 GB of RAM. Furthermore, only the identities of users who have acknowledged data receipt are posted to L1, ensuring data availability with a minimal on-chain footprint. This design keeps L1 costs extremely low, enabling a theoretical throughput of over 14000 transactions per second.